Disaster Response Logistics: Chief Findings of Fieldwork Research
Disaster Response Logistics: Chief Findings of Fieldwork Research
Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016
José Holguín-Veras, Miguel Jaller, Felipe Aros-Vera, Johanna Amaya,
Trilce Encarnación and Tricia Wachtendorf
Abstract This chapter discuses Disaster Response Logistics in connection with the
Emergency Functions conducted by relief agencies, and identifies under-studied
areas where logistic research could enhance operational effectiveness. The chapter
establishes the socio-technical nature of Disaster Response Logistics, and the implications
for disaster mitigation, preparation, and response. It relays the chief findings
of the fieldwork research conducted by the authors, which support the development
of policies to enhance advance preparation and coordination of disaster response
activities.
Keywords Disaster management · Disaster plans · Material convergence · Disaster
preparedness · Disaster response logistics · Humanitarian logistics · Emergency
support functions
Introduction
The twenty-first century has provided numerous examples of the devastating effects
that disasters can produce on societies. Profound and complex, these effects
impact all facets of the socio-technical processes at the core of modern life: social
networks, technical activities performed by individuals, and the supporting systems
(the operational environment) that rely on other socio-technical systems such as
communications and finance. Adding to the challenge, there is great uncertainty
about when and where disasters may occur, and the potential severity of their impacts.
Disaster mitigation, preparedness, and response plans must be improved to
minimize vulnerabilities, and to ensure that what is known can be leveraged to
improve the effectiveness of future efforts. Central to these efforts is the field of Disaster
Response Logistics (DRL), which is the detailed coordination, management,
and planning of activities related to disaster response; the handling and coordination
of the associated flows of people, information, equipment, and materials. DRL is a
broad field that includes the logistics of a wide range of emergency functions, such
as search and rescue, power restoration, volunteer and donation management, and
distribution of relief supplies. It is tremendously important to improve DRL operations
by means of multi-disciplinary research; such approache has a better chance
of designing new paradigms of DRL operations that account for the multi-faceted
complexity of societal needs and impacts in disaster situations.
One of the major challenges for developing innovative DRL concepts is the difficulty
of studying real-life DRL operations, since they occur with relatively low
frequency, and are very complex and dynamic (Holguín-Veras et al. 2014b). Moreover,
the transient nature of the response work—done mostly by volunteers who
participate for limited amounts of time—prevents the accumulation of experiences
central to knowledge creation. As a result, relatively few individuals gain multievent
involvements in disaster response, and those who do typically are not inclined
to publish detailed accounts of their experiences. The net effect is that the research
community does not have ready access to solid information about the realities of disaster
operations, and the corresponding research needs. There are other challenges.
If and when lessons are identified in after-action-reports, the authors do not always
indicate which agency, or who, must implement the recommendations (Ontko et al.
2007). Moreover, there is always the challenge of overcoming institutional inertia,
doubts about the validity of findings, or general apathy. Changing institutional
practices is a challenging endeavor. There is a great need for fieldwork research on
DRL, and widespread dissemination of detailed accounts of what transpired in DRL
operations and the lessons learned. This will help the research community focus on
priority areas where their work could make a difference.
The goal of this chapter is to help fill this void by discussing DRL within the
context of disaster response literature and practice and summarizing the chief findings
from fieldwork research conducted by the authors in the aftermath of dozens of
disasters of all sizes. The research reported here is the result of hundreds of formal
and informal interviews with disaster responders, and ex-post analyses of relief
operations. The chapter has four sections: Sect. 2 defines and discusses DRL in
connection with the Emergency Functions conducted by relief agencies; the findings
and chief lessons learned are summarized in Sect. 3; and concluding remarks
are presented in Sect. 4.
Disaster Response Logistics (DRL)
To ensure a common base for the discussion and analyses, a basic set of definitions
must be adopted. From the dozens of alternative definitions for these terms
(Blanchard 2008) the authors include the most widely accepted. These definitions
are important because, by categorizing the type of event, they help determine the
nature of the response. In the context of this paper:
Technically, a catastrophic event is one in which “most or all of the community-built structure is
heavily impacted … [and] facilities and operational bases of most emergency
organizations are themselves usually hit”; “local officials are unable to undertake
their usual work role”; “help from nearby communities cannot be provided”;
“most, if not all, of the everyday community functions are sharply and concurrently
interrupted”; “the mass media system especially in recent times socially
constructs catastrophes even more than they do disasters”; there are “mass outmigrations
for protracted periods of time”; and, “because of the previous six
impacts, the political arena becomes even more important”. (Quarantelli 2006;
Holguín-Veras et al. 2012b; Wachtendorf et al. 2013).
It is worth noting that the definition of “disaster” encompasses such events as famines
and chronic political crises that threaten vulnerable populations; and that DRL
includes all logistical activities, humanitarian or not, dealing with disaster response.
The breadth of DRL could be illustrated with the analysis of the Emergency Support
Functions (ESFs) defined by the Federal Emergency Management Agency
(FEMA). The ESFs “…provide the structure for coordinating Federal interagency
support for a Federal response to an incident” and are “…mechanisms for grouping
functions used to provide Federal support to States and Federal-to-Federal support.”
(Federal Emergency Management Agency 2008). However, since FEMA’s list only
includes the functions supported by the federal government, it must be complemented
with those performed by local responders to obtain a complete list of the tasks
conducted in real-life operations. Something to keep in mind is that FEMA’s role is
to support the local response, hence the emphasis on “Support” in ESFs. However,
since the emphasis of the chapter is on actual operations, the word “Support” has
been removed to create the term “Emergency Function” or EF. Table 3.1 shows the
EFs and tasks.
Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016
José Holguín-Veras, Miguel Jaller, Felipe Aros-Vera, Johanna Amaya,
Trilce Encarnación and Tricia Wachtendorf
Abstract This chapter discuses Disaster Response Logistics in connection with the
Emergency Functions conducted by relief agencies, and identifies under-studied
areas where logistic research could enhance operational effectiveness. The chapter
establishes the socio-technical nature of Disaster Response Logistics, and the implications
for disaster mitigation, preparation, and response. It relays the chief findings
of the fieldwork research conducted by the authors, which support the development
of policies to enhance advance preparation and coordination of disaster response
activities.
Keywords Disaster management · Disaster plans · Material convergence · Disaster
preparedness · Disaster response logistics · Humanitarian logistics · Emergency
support functions
Introduction
The twenty-first century has provided numerous examples of the devastating effects
that disasters can produce on societies. Profound and complex, these effects
impact all facets of the socio-technical processes at the core of modern life: social
networks, technical activities performed by individuals, and the supporting systems
(the operational environment) that rely on other socio-technical systems such as
communications and finance. Adding to the challenge, there is great uncertainty
about when and where disasters may occur, and the potential severity of their impacts.
Disaster mitigation, preparedness, and response plans must be improved to
minimize vulnerabilities, and to ensure that what is known can be leveraged to
improve the effectiveness of future efforts. Central to these efforts is the field of Disaster
Response Logistics (DRL), which is the detailed coordination, management,
and planning of activities related to disaster response; the handling and coordination
of the associated flows of people, information, equipment, and materials. DRL is a
broad field that includes the logistics of a wide range of emergency functions, such
as search and rescue, power restoration, volunteer and donation management, and
distribution of relief supplies. It is tremendously important to improve DRL operations
by means of multi-disciplinary research; such approache has a better chance
of designing new paradigms of DRL operations that account for the multi-faceted
complexity of societal needs and impacts in disaster situations.
One of the major challenges for developing innovative DRL concepts is the difficulty
of studying real-life DRL operations, since they occur with relatively low
frequency, and are very complex and dynamic (Holguín-Veras et al. 2014b). Moreover,
the transient nature of the response work—done mostly by volunteers who
participate for limited amounts of time—prevents the accumulation of experiences
central to knowledge creation. As a result, relatively few individuals gain multievent
involvements in disaster response, and those who do typically are not inclined
to publish detailed accounts of their experiences. The net effect is that the research
community does not have ready access to solid information about the realities of disaster
operations, and the corresponding research needs. There are other challenges.
If and when lessons are identified in after-action-reports, the authors do not always
indicate which agency, or who, must implement the recommendations (Ontko et al.
2007). Moreover, there is always the challenge of overcoming institutional inertia,
doubts about the validity of findings, or general apathy. Changing institutional
practices is a challenging endeavor. There is a great need for fieldwork research on
DRL, and widespread dissemination of detailed accounts of what transpired in DRL
operations and the lessons learned. This will help the research community focus on
priority areas where their work could make a difference.
The goal of this chapter is to help fill this void by discussing DRL within the
context of disaster response literature and practice and summarizing the chief findings
from fieldwork research conducted by the authors in the aftermath of dozens of
disasters of all sizes. The research reported here is the result of hundreds of formal
and informal interviews with disaster responders, and ex-post analyses of relief
operations. The chapter has four sections: Sect. 2 defines and discusses DRL in
connection with the Emergency Functions conducted by relief agencies; the findings
and chief lessons learned are summarized in Sect. 3; and concluding remarks
are presented in Sect. 4.
Disaster Response Logistics (DRL)
To ensure a common base for the discussion and analyses, a basic set of definitions
must be adopted. From the dozens of alternative definitions for these terms
(Blanchard 2008) the authors include the most widely accepted. These definitions
are important because, by categorizing the type of event, they help determine the
nature of the response. In the context of this paper:
- An “emergency” is “…an unexpected event which places life and/or property in danger and requires an immediate response through the use of routine community resources and procedures. Examples would be a multi-automobile wreck, especially involving injury or death, and a fire caused by lightning strike which spreads to other buildings. Emergencies can be handled with local resources…” (Drabek 1996).
- A “disaster” is “…a non-routine event that exceeds the capacity of the affected area to respond to it in such a way as to save lives; to preserve property; and to maintain the social, ecological, economic, and political stability of the affected region…” (Pearce 2000). It should be noted that this definition views a disaster as external to the system. Others such as Wisner et al. (2004) hold the view that a disaster is internal to the system itself.
- A “catastrophe” can be defined as “…any disaster that overwhelms the ability of state, local, and volunteer agencies to adequately provide victims with such life-sustaining mass care services as food, shelter, and medical assistance within the first 12–24 h.” (General Accounting Office 1993, p. 1).
Technically, a catastrophic event is one in which “most or all of the community-built structure is
heavily impacted … [and] facilities and operational bases of most emergency
organizations are themselves usually hit”; “local officials are unable to undertake
their usual work role”; “help from nearby communities cannot be provided”;
“most, if not all, of the everyday community functions are sharply and concurrently
interrupted”; “the mass media system especially in recent times socially
constructs catastrophes even more than they do disasters”; there are “mass outmigrations
for protracted periods of time”; and, “because of the previous six
impacts, the political arena becomes even more important”. (Quarantelli 2006;
Holguín-Veras et al. 2012b; Wachtendorf et al. 2013).
It is worth noting that the definition of “disaster” encompasses such events as famines
and chronic political crises that threaten vulnerable populations; and that DRL
includes all logistical activities, humanitarian or not, dealing with disaster response.
The breadth of DRL could be illustrated with the analysis of the Emergency Support
Functions (ESFs) defined by the Federal Emergency Management Agency
(FEMA). The ESFs “…provide the structure for coordinating Federal interagency
support for a Federal response to an incident” and are “…mechanisms for grouping
functions used to provide Federal support to States and Federal-to-Federal support.”
(Federal Emergency Management Agency 2008). However, since FEMA’s list only
includes the functions supported by the federal government, it must be complemented
with those performed by local responders to obtain a complete list of the tasks
conducted in real-life operations. Something to keep in mind is that FEMA’s role is
to support the local response, hence the emphasis on “Support” in ESFs. However,
since the emphasis of the chapter is on actual operations, the word “Support” has
been removed to create the term “Emergency Function” or EF. Table 3.1 shows the
EFs and tasks.
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